Prolegomena
Prolegomena is the discursive introduction to a book. It means essentially to ‘say something beforehand’ or to ‘say something in advance’. In theology, prolegomena considers the method, sources, meaning, and purpose of theology. It asks the questions: what is theology, where does it come from, and where is it going. Christian theology is a discipline of study that aims to understand who God is and how He has revealed Himself in Scripture, nature, and history – and importantly what this means in the light of society and culture as a whole. This introduction will explore the meaning of theology, the sources of the theology, the ultimate end of theology, the relation of systematic theology to other theological disciplines, and the contextual relationship between theology and culture. Space will also be given to consider method in theology, the various loci of Reformed dogmatics, and the central methodological principle of ‘faith seeking understanding’ or as the title puts it in the Latin: fides quaerens intellectum.
I.
Theology: Meaning & Purpose
The word theology is derived from the Greek words theos
and logia meaning ‘God’ and ‘word’ respectively. In other words, theology
is a word about God. Scripture is the normative foundation of dogmatics. It is
a word from another world and a treasure-trove of precious jewels from which
the content of theology is mined. This is because God has revealed Himself in
and through the Christian Scriptures, collectively known as the Bible. The
writer to the Hebrews tells us, ‘Long ago, at many times and in many ways, God
spoke to our fathers by the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to
us by his Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, and through whom also
he created the world’ (Hebrews 1:1–2). Under the Old Covenant, God spoke to the
patriarchs and prophets, revealing himself to his chosen people, Israel. This
revelation, including the great event of the Exodus, was carefully recorded in
the Scriptures of the Old Testament. Supremely, however, God has spoken by
Jesus Christ and the New Covenant written in his blood. Jesus Christ is his
beloved and eternal Son through whom he created the world and everything in it.
In the prologue to John’s Gospel, Jesus Christ is spoken of as the divine Word
or logos who reveals God and who intervenes personally in the human
situation by assuming our humanity and dying in our stead. John says, ‘And the
Word [Jesus Christ] became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his
glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth’ (John
1:14).
Theology also explores the various questions connected with
God, Scripture, and Jesus Christ. This means that it tries to explore God’s
relationship with creation, particularly with human beings whom he made after
his image and likeness. It considers the fall of humankind into a state of sin
and spiritual death and the redemptive work of Christ in coming to save lost
sinners from the dark paths of sin and restore to them the image of God which
had been corrupted by the fall. Theology also considers the person and work of
the Holy Spirit who inspired the prophets and was given at Pentecost, who is
the Lord and Giver of life, and who breathed out the Holy Scriptures. The Holy
Spirit is responsible for applying the work of redemption to the hearts and
lives of those who trust in Jesus Christ. Theology is about a Trinity of
persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These three are one God, equal in power
and in glory. The Father elects a people for himself and gives the Son; the Son
voluntarily assumes human nature and dies upon a cross to redeem his Father’s
elect; and the Spirit is given by the Father through the Son and applies
salvation to everyone who believes in Jesus Christ. If our theology is to be theocentric
(God-centred), it must be robustly Trinitarian and centred on the person and
work of the God-man, Jesus Christ. Not only does theology concern itself with
Christ, humanity, redemption, and the Spirit, it also considers the Church. In
fact, the great Swiss theologian Karl Barth called his work in systematic
theology Church Dogmatics, emphasising the importance of the ecclesiastical
community or those to whom God has revealed Himself in Christ. ‘Dogmatics is
the science in which the Church, in accordance with the state of its knowledge
at different times, takes account of the content of the content of its
proclamation critically, that is by the standard of Holy Scripture and under
the guidance of its Confessions’.[1]
Barth emphasises the importance of the Church for dogmatics. Without the
Church, there would be no theology at all. In the words of Cyprian of Carthage,
‘No one can have God for his Father, who does not have the Church for his
mother’.
In terms of purpose, theology is fundamentally
eschatological. It is going somewhere. There is an end and purpose in view.
Eschatology is the doctrine of the last things. It may sound strange to modern
ears, but we are actually living in the last days. Since Christ has come,
established his Church, and ascended into heaven, we now await his return or
Parousia to redeem his Church. Theologians emphasize what may be called
inaugurated eschatology. In other words, there is an ‘already’ and a ‘not yet’
dimension to eschatology. Christ has already come and inaugurated his
kingdom and the Father has given the Spirit to the Church as a sign of the last
days. However, the work of the Spirit of Christ is not yet fully
consummated in the new heavens and new earth. One day Christ will return,
redeem his Church, judge the world, and establish his everlasting kingdom,
world without end. The Christian view of
history is fundamentally teleological. In other words, it has a telos, a
meaning or purpose. It is for this reason that the perspective of optimistic amillennialism is defended in subsequent chapters in this book. History has
an eschatological goal. God through history is working to establish his kingdom
through the global spread of Christianity, through revival and reformation, and
through the building of his Church.[2]
While I would not take the thousand years of revelation 20 literally, I would
none the less expect an extended spiritual reign of Christ before the second
coming as Christ’s kingdom advances in the world. Eschatology necessarily
offers hope, not despair. In the words of Isaac Watts:
Jesus shall reign where’er the
sun
Does its successive journeys
run.
His kingdom stretch form shore
to shore,
Till moons shall wax and wane no more.
II.
Theology and Other Disciplines
Systematic theology is not the only subject studied in a
theological department. It also stands in relation to historical theology,
natural theology, and Biblical theology. Systematic theology or dogmatics as a
discipline is to be distinguished from historical theology which considers the
development of doctrine throughout history, or in a given historical period, or
in the work of a particular theologian from history. This is important for
dogmatics in order to reflect upon the teachings of the Church from the past
2000 years. It would be highly presumptuous of theology to begin as if nothing
had previously been said upon the matter and as if the Holy Spirit had not
given sufficient illumination to the Church throughout history. Tradition is
therefore an important source of theology. The final word belongs to Scripture,
but our theology is part of a conversation between Scripture and history.
Another potential source of theology is nature. Karl Barth
furiously reacted against nature as a source of theology in the twentieth
century. He gave precious little room in his dogmatics to developing a natural
theology. His answer to Emil Brunner’s essay on nature and grace was a
publication decisively called Nein! We might describe Barth’s view as
something of an overreaction since Scripture clearly allows some scope for
developing a natural theology. Philosophical or natural theology explores how
God has revealed himself through nature. This is something familiar to the
psalmist who says, ‘The heavens declare the glory of God, and the sky above
proclaims his handiwork’ (Psalm 19:1). Even the most irreligious will feel a sense
of glory and wonder as he gazes up into the starry heavens. Paul argues in his
epistle to the Romans, that God has revealed something of his glory in the
things that have been made: ‘For his invisible attributes, namely, his eternal
power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation
of the world, in the things that have been made’ (Romans 1:20). We will explore
the arguments of natural theology in more detail as we consider the doctrine of
God.
A word or two must also be said about Biblical theology.
Sometimes there has been an unhealthy competition between Biblical and
systematic theology as to which is normative for the Christian faith. Biblical
theology may concern itself with what a given part of the Bible says on a
particular matter. For example, one could ask what does the apostle Paul teach
about justification or union with Christ, or what does the Psalmist teach about
prayer, or what does the New Testament as a whole teach about inaugurated
eschatology. Biblical theology also concerns itself with the progressive nature
of divine revelation from creation, through to the Patriarchs, to the emergence
of the nation of Israel, to Christ (his life, death, and resurrection), to the
giving of the Holy Spirit, the emergence of the Church, and the final
consummation and return of Christ to establish his eternal kingdom. All
theology must be Biblical in the broadest sense, including systematic theology.
The systematic theologian draws upon the work of Biblical theologians in the
formation of doctrine, but he also considers what Church history has to say on
a given topic, what philosophy might contribute, and how to relate doctrine to culture
and society, as we have already argued.
III.
Theology and Culture
Culture is not so much a source of theology as it is the
context into which theology speaks. There is a danger of sacrificing truth to
relevance, but there is also a danger of being so irrelevant as to be meaningless
in the face of modern society. Theology must be both faithful to Scripture,
mindful of tradition, but also relevant to humanity in the 21st
century. H. Richard Niebuhr proposed five ways in which Christians have engaged
with culture in his famous work Christ and Culture published in 1951:
1.
First, there is the ‘Christ against culture’
model. This is the argument of those who wish to isolate themselves from
society which is universally viewed as being corrupt and immoral. Fundamentalists
often take this approach to culture: ‘don’t go to the cinema, don’t watch
movies, don’t play non-Christian music, don’t read science fiction etc. It is
also the position of more radical separatist movements like the Mennonite and
Amish communities which isolate themselves almost completely from modern
culture.
2.
Second, there is the ‘Christ of culture’ model. This
views modern culture as essentially a good thing and something which believers
should be willing to learn from, emulate, and incorporate into their systems of
truth. Modern liberal Protestantism essentially adopts this uncritical view of culture
and expects theology to do the same. Relevance is the keyword.
3.
Third, in the ‘Christ above culture’ model, culture
is seen as essentially good, but Scripture is nonetheless necessary to evaluate
and transcend those cultural expressions. This was the viewpoint adopted by
Thomas Aquinas and subsequently incorporated into the ethos of the Roman
Catholic Church. Anyone who has been to the Vatican will know of the tremendous
ability of the Roman Catholic Church to appropriate art and culture as its own.
4.
Fourth, there is the ‘Christ and culture in
paradox’ model. This model suggests that there is a tension between Christians
and the cultures in which they find themselves. Christians are to be in the
world, but not of the world. Niebuhr suggest that Martin Luther was a proponent
of this view. And it has arguably also been seen within aspects of conservative
evangelicalism, which often identifies itself as a countercultural.
5.
Finally, there is ‘Christ as the transformer of
culture’ model. This view is held by those who desire to redeem culture for the
Gospel in the light of Christ’s death and resurrection. Niebuhr points to
Augustine and Calvin as proponents of this view. Similarly the neo-Calvinism of
Abraham Kuyper and Herman Bavinck takes this particular model of cultural
engagement as its own.[3]
This dogmatics adopts aspects of perspectives four and five.
Sometimes culture goes against the teaching of Scripture and Christians should
be reminded that they are not ‘of this world’ as expressed by the Apostle Paul
in Romans12:2. However, Christ may also be said to redeem culture for Himself
so that even in the new heavenly city ‘the kings of the earth will bring their splendour
into it’ (Revelation 21:24). Herman Bavinck describes grace as something which
restores nature. In other words, grace is not opposed to nature, but to sin.
This is something the fundamentalist forgets in his crusade against modernity.
God’s creation is a good gift to humanity and must be redeemed in that light as
humans develop and expand upon the gifts given in nature. One day all creation
will be restored and renewed into a place wherein righteousness dwells (2 Peter
3:13). In the words of Abraham Kuyper, ‘There is not a square inch in the whole
domain of our human existence over which Christ, who is Sovereign over all,
does not cry, “Mine”’.[4]
Modernism defined cultural expression for most of the
eighteenth through to the late twentieth centuries. Building upon Enlightenment
values, modernism emphasised certainty and rationality. It put considerable
emphasis on foundationalism. Truth is said to rest upon justified belief.
Culture today however is largely shaped by a reaction to modernism known as
postmodernism. Postmodernists express incredulity towards metanarratives or
stories which attempt to explain all of reality such as liberal humanism or
Marxism. Postmodernists argue that all knowledge is perspectival. There can be
no such thing as disinterested inquiry since we are all influenced by our
political views, values, assumptions, background, and social contexts. Language
doesn’t simply make records about reality; it actually shapes and constructs it.
In other words, all reality is textual. Truth is provisional, rather than
absolute. Meaning is contingent or subject to chance. And human nature is
essentially a myth. Obviously, Christians cannot agree with all the
implications and theories of postmodernism. However, acknowledging that we are
not disinterested observers and are influenced by our presuppositions can go a
long way towards liberating theological discourse from the straitjacket of
modernism. Some theologians such as John Frame and Vern Poythress have even
embraced the notion that truth is perspectival.[5]
However, postmodernism suffers from problems with logical consistency. If all
truth is relative and conditional, this must also apply to postmodernism
itself. In other words, the doctrine is self-refuting. Christians should take
the meat offered by postmodernism but leave bones.
IV.
Methodology
Methodology is the contextual framework behind a thesis. It
includes views, beliefs, and values that determine the choices a researcher
makes. Methodology is the framework for doing theology. This involves a
disclosure of presuppositions and biases that influence the direction of
research and a consideration of method in theology or how one goes about
constructing a systematic theology.
In terms of beliefs and values behind this thesis, there are
at least three core emphases that come to mind. First, this systematic theology
intends to belong to the Reformed tradition or to be shaped by the theology of
the Protestant Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin. This includes
three key aspects:
1.
The belief that Scripture alone is our highest
authority and rule of faith.
2.
The teaching that salvation is by faith alone,
through grace alone, in Christ alone.
3.
The doctrine that all of life is to be lived for
the glory and enjoyment of God alone.
A commitment to Reformed theology also aims to integrate and
build upon the theology of the Reformed Confessions, particularly the
Westminster Standards (The Shorter and Larger Catechism and the Westminster
Confession of Faith) and the Three Forms of Unity (the Belgic Confession, the
Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism).
Second, this systematic theology aims to be broadly evangelical,
building upon the experiential theology of George Whitefield and John Wesley. David
Bebbington is famous for his four-point definition of evangelicalism, often
referred to as the Bebbington quadrilateral, which was first published in his
study of evangelicalism in modern Britain.[6]
Bebbington identifies four key features that have characterised evangelicalism
across its history from the 1730s to the present day:
1.
Biblicism – a high regard for Scripture as the
normative source for theology and practice.
2.
Crucicentrism – a particular focus on the
atoning work of Christ on the cross.
3.
Conversionism – an emphasis on the need to be
converted or born again.
4.
Activism – the belief that the Gospel needs to
be expressed in social and evangelistic effort.
Bebbington was by no means offering a summary of evangelical
theology as a whole, he merely aimed to delineate some of its key
characteristics as expressed in its historical development.
Thirdly, this theology aims to be catholic in its acceptance
and use of the ecumenical creeds such as the Apostle’s Creed, the Athanasian
Creed, and the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and the writings of the early
Church fathers. There are three salient features of a broadly catholic or
ecumenical perspective:
1.
Monotheism – the belief that there is only one
God who created the heavens and the earth, the maker of all things visible and
invisible.
2.
Trinitarianism – the belief that this same God
exists in three co-equal, co-eternal persons: namely, Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit. These three are one God, equal in power and in glory.
3.
Christocentrism – the belief that God has
revealed himself in the person and work of Jesus Christ, the eternal Son of God,
who became a man of reasonable body and soul and who suffered the death of the
cross for the salvation of the world.
The points provide the definition of what is broadly
considered to be ‘Christian’ whether Roman Catholic, Protestant, or Eastern
Orthodox.
With respect to method in theology, there are several key
themes. Exegesis is the foundation of dogmatics. Without God’s revelation in
Scripture, theology is almost impossible. Systematic theology asks the
question: ‘What does the whole Bible teach about x, y, and z?’. However,
systematics is not merely an exercise in proof-texting. It also considers
theology within the context of the Church and the development of theology
throughout history. In other words, theology also asks the question, ‘What has
the Church historically taught and believed about x, y, and z?’. This involves
gathering illumination from extrabiblical materials in the form of confessions,
creeds, and catechisms, but also in the form of works of systematic theology or
theological monographs on the specific loci of dogmatics. Theology should also
be sensitive to developments in the history of philosophy, society, and
culture. This is the contemporary context in which systematic theology is
developed. Medieval theologians rightly assigned the role of handmaiden to
philosophy in its relationship with theology. It helps to clarify theological
language, organise reflections on Scripture, and provide methodological and
interpretative frameworks to the theological enterprise. Method in theology is
also concerned with the bones and skeletal structure of dogmatics which is the
subject of the next paragraph.
There are several key subdivisions within systematic
theology which operates on a broadly Trinitarian framework. As Herman Bavinck
observes concerning the nature of Christian religion: ‘The essence of the
Christian religion consists in the reality that the creation of the Father,
ruined by sin, is restored in the death of the Son of God, and recreated by the
grace of the Holy Spirit into a kingdom of God’.[7]
This sums up the work of dogmatics in a nutshell. The various themes of
theology unfold according to the basic design suggested by Herman Bavinck. Theology
proper explores the attributes of God and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. It
also considers God’s role in creation, providence, and redemption. Space should
also be given in theology proper to the doctrine of divine revelation in nature
(natural theology) and in Scripture (Bibliology). Christology considers the
person and work of Christ and gives attention to themes like the hypostatic
union and the nature and extent of the atonement. Pneumatology explores the
person and work of the Holy Spirit and considers issues surrounding Spiritual
gifts and the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. Anthropology concerns itself with the
doctrine of man, the image of God in man, and the fall of man into sin (also
known as the study of hamartiology). Soteriology considers the application of
redemption by the Holy Spirit to the believer and the explores the themes of
election, calling, regeneration, faith and repentance, sanctification,
adoption, and glorification. Ecclesiology is the doctrine of the one, holy, catholic,
and apostolic Church and the sacraments of baptism and Holy Eucharist. Finally,
eschatology is the doctrine of the last things and explores themes such as heaven,
hell, the millennium, and the second coming of Christ to establish his
everlasting kingdom.
A central aspect of methodology in this thesis is summed up
in title: ‘Fides Quaerens Intellectum’ or ‘Faith Seeking Understanding’. This
method of doing theology has a long history as it is found in the writings of Augustine
(354–430) and Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109). One begins with a simple
trust in God (a childlike faith, not a childish faith) and on the basis of that
faith continues into a deeper awareness of divine truth. It means to grasp
intellectually what we know by faith. In the words of the medieval theologian Anselm
of Canterbury, ‘I do not seek to understand in order that I may believe, but
rather, I believe in order that I may understand’. Of course, Anslem is well
known for his ontological argument for the existence of God which builds upon
this foundation. The ontological argument aims to prove not only that God
exists, but also that he is endowed with all his traditional attributes of
perfection (e.g. omniscience, omnipresence, omnipotence etc.) or that he is
‘maximally great’. Anselm of Canterbury argued that God is the greatest
conceivable being there is. Since it is greater for something to exist in
reality than in the mind, God necessarily exists. Some have suggested that this
argument is more a curiosity of language than a real argument for the existence
of God. People quipped that you could imagine the greatest possible island to
exist or conjure up unicorns simply by imagining them. However, it has become a
serious argument in contemporary philosophy through the work of the analytic
philosopher Alvin Plantinga who uses modal logic to develop a robust argument
for the existence of God. In his version of the argument, Plantinga conceives
of God as a being who is ‘maximally excellent’ in every possible world. The
analytic philosopher and Christian apologist William Lane Craig explains
Plantinga’s argument as follows:
1.
It is possible that a maximally great being
exists.
2.
If it is possible that a maximally great being
exists, then a maximally great being exists in some possible world.
3.
If a maximally great being exists in some
possible world, then it exists in every possible world.
4.
If a maximally great being exists in the actual
world, then a maximally great being exists.
5.
Therefore, a maximally great being exists.
This is clearly not just a curiosity of language – there is
something about God that makes his existence necessary. It may be this fact
that lies behind God’s revelation of his name to Moses as ‘I am that I am’
(Exodus 3:14). Just as we believe in the existence of other minds, so we
believe in the existence of God. It is intuitive and innate. Belief in God is
properly basic and every human being has an inward sense that God exists (cf.
Romans 1:18–20).[8] Calvin
called this belief the sensus divintatis and explained it as follows:
That there exists in the human
mind and indeed by natural instinct, some sense of Deity [sensus divinitatis],
we hold to be beyond dispute, since God himself, to prevent any man from
pretending ignorance, has endued all men with some idea of his Godhead … this
is not a doctrine which is first learned at school, but one as to which every
man is, from the womb, his own master; one which nature herself allows no
individual to forget.[9]
By nature, we supress this truth in unrighteousness as Paul
teaches in the first chapter of his epistle to the Romans. We all have this
sense within us, but it does not work properly in some of us, due to the noetic
effects of sin. It is the Holy Spirit who enables us to see that ‘something
lives in every hue Christless eyes have never seen’.[10]
Jesus promised his disciples that the Holy Spirit would lead them into all
truth: ‘But the Helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name,
he will teach you all things and bring to your remembrance all that I have said
to you’ (John 14:26). The Holy Spirit has a tendency to hide himself and
magnify Christ: ‘When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to you from the
Father – the Spirit of truth who proceeds from the Father – He will testify
about me’ (John 15:26). The study and exposition of theology should not be in
word only, but in the power and demonstration of the Holy Spirit (1
Thessalonians 1:5) or as Jesus reminded the Samaritan woman: ‘God is Spirit,
and those who worship him must worship in spirit and in truth’ (John 4:24).
This means that there is an experiential aspect to theology. It is not merely a
theoretical discipline. Theology should speak to the heart and change our
behaviour in accordance with the teachings of the Scriptures. ‘Religion that is
pure and undefiled before God the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows
in the their affliction, and to keep oneself unstained from the world’ (James
1:27).
This brings us to the final point of prolegomena. Theology
is doxology. This is why Paul breaks out in praise after expounding many
theological topics in his letter to the Romans: ‘Oh, the depth of the riches
and wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his judgements and how
inscrutable his ways! “For who has known the mind of the Lord, or who has been
his counsellor?” “Or who has given a gift to him that he might be repaid?” For
from him and through him and to him are all things. To him be glory forever.
Amen’ (Romans 11:33–36). The Reformers encapsulated this idea in the phrase Soli
Deo Gloria (‘to God alone be the glory’) and the Westminster Shorter
Catechism described the chief end of man as consisting in the glorification and
enjoyment of God. The ultimate end and aim of theology should be the glory of
God. We do not theologise to become puffed up with our own self-importance. We
do theology and engage in theological studies to glorify God and enjoy him forever.
[1]
Karl Barth, Dogmatics in Outline (London, 2001), p. 1.
[2]
See Iain Murray, The Puritan Hope: Revival and the Interpretation of
Prophecy (Edinburgh, 1971).
[3] H.
Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (London, 1952).
[4]
The famous quote in Dutch reads as follows: “Geen duimbreed is er op heel ‘t
erf van ons menselijk leven, waarvan de Christus, die áller Souverein is, niet
roept: ‘Mijn!”’ Souvereiniteit in Eigen Kring (Kok: Kampen, 3rd ed.,
1930), 33.
[5]
John Frame, ‘A Primer on Perspectivalism’ (June, 2012), available at frame-poythress.org;
Vern Poythress, Symphonic Theology: The Validity of Multiple Perspectives in
Theology (Grand Rapids, MI, 1987). Although they embrace multiple
perspectives in the theology, the extent to which they may be describe as
postmodern is debateable.
[6]
David W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the
1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989).
[7] Herman
Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics: Prolegomena (Grand Rapids, MI, 2003), p.
61.
[8]
See Alvin Plantinga, Knowledge and Christian Belief (Grand Rapids, MI, 2015); Warranted
Christian Belief (New York & Oxford, 2004).
[9]
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1.3.1, 3.
[10] From
the hymn ‘Loved with everlasting love’ by George Wade Robinson.