Plato is arguably one of the greatest philosophers in the history of Western civilisation - at least when considered along with his equally famous pupil: Aristotle. I have been working my way through Plato’s complete works the past few weeks and wanted to share my thoughts on each dialogue. Given that he writes in dialogue form, it is often tricky to know what Plato himself thinks. His doctrines are always in the mouth of another character such as Socrates. It is almost as if he suspends his judgement regarding his convictions. You never quite know what he really thinks. A lot of the dialogues are unresolved - giving space for the reader to draw his or her own conclusions or raise further questions. I recommend reading through John M. Cooper and D. S. Hutchinson’s scholarly edition of Plato’s complete works. You get everything by Plato in one volume with scholarly introductions to each dialogue. I have included a bibliography of suggested reading at the end for those who wish to delve deeper into Plato’s thought.
Euthyphro considers the nature of piety and what the gods consider pious. Is something pious because the God's say so, or is something inherently pious even for the gods? This dilemma is at the heart of the dialogue. The Apology considers Socrates at trial and contains that remarkable quote: ‘the unexamined life is not worth living’ (p. 33). In Crito, Socrates' friends try to persuade him to escape from prison and avoid the death penalty, but Socrates’ refuses and courageously faces death. Phaedo is a drama about Socrates’ last hours and his death in the jail at Athens. It deals with the immortality of the soul - of which Plato is a notable advocate in the history of philosophy. It contains an argument for recollection as the means of obtaining knowledge and on this basis argues for the pre-existence of souls.
Cratylus deals with the philosophy of language and etymology. Socrates is tasked with deciding between the minimalist position which posits that names are whatever is agreed upon by the community and the naturalist position which argues that names reflect the nature of the object named. Theaetetus deals with the subject of epistemology and asks the question: what is knowledge? Is knowledge perception? Or justified belief? Or justified belief with reason or logos? These are the options considered by Theaetetus and Socrates, though no ultimate conclusion is reached. Sophist is a dialogue that seeks to distinguish the sophist from the philosopher and statesman. It defines the sophist as one who hunts for rich young men, to exchange money for learning. Statesman is a related dialogue and considers the art of kingship. It distinguishes the office of statesman from other arts, crafts, and professions.
Parmenides considers the nature of the One. In this dialogue, Parmenides challenges Socrates’ theory of forms. While Socrates allows for forms such as unity, plurality, goodness and beauty, he is reluctant to consider forms of mud, hair, and dirt. Philebus is an ethical dialogue in the Socratic tradition. It considers the question: what is the human good? Philebus is an advocate of pleasure perhaps reflecting the Epicurean tradition; whereas Socrates appears to suggest a distinction between higher pleasures of the mind and lower pleasures of the body - with the best life being an admixture of the both. ‘We stand like cup-bearers before the fountains - the fountain of pleasure, comparable to honey, and the sobering fountain of intelligence, free of wine, like sober, healthy water - and we have to see how to make a perfect mixture of the two’ (p. 451). Knowledge is seen by Socrates as the highest pleasure and the definition of the good life.
In the Symposium, several characters make speeches at a drinking party on the nature of true love in praise of Eros. Socrates’ considers the ascent towards the form of Beauty which is the ultimate object of love. Similarly, Phaedrus deals with the topic of love. It explores the positives and negatives of entering a romantic relationship. It also gives considerable attention to the subject of rhetoric and the art of public speaking. Alcibiades considers the art of politics and what it means to be a just leader. Central to the dialogue is the Delphic saying “Know Thyself”. This dialogue is also famous for its portrayal of what has come to be known as platonic love.
Charmides explores the meaning of ‘sophrosyne’ or temperance (may also be translated as self-control). Temperance is first defined as doing one’s own work, but this seems too vague. Then the Delphic oracle “Know Thyself” is offered as a definition of temperance. As is common in many Platonic dialogues, no conclusion is reached, but many questions are raised concerning this particular virtue. Laches is a Socratic dialogue on the nature of courage and the art of warfare. It ends in aporia like many of Plato’s dialogues. Lysis is a dialogue on the nature of friendship or ‘philia’. This is a much broader and more inclusive term that our word for friendship. The dialogue explores several different avenues, but reaches no ultimate conclusion. The subject of friendship was famously taken up by Plato’s pupil Aristotle in his treatise Nicomachean Ethics.
Euthydemus is a dialogue on the logical fallacies of the sophists. Socrates engages in discussion with two notable sophist brothers, Euthydemus and Dionysodrous. They both try but ultimately fail to ensnare Socrates in debate. Protagoras is a debate between the sophist protagonist and Socrates. The debate considers the subject of virtue and whether or not it can be taught for a fee as Protagoras maintains. Socrates argues that virtue consists in wisdom and that this subject is the domain of the philosopher, one who loves wisdom.
Gorgias deals with the nature of rhetoric and its relation to philosophy. Gorgias was a master of the art of public speaking; possibly a sophist. Socrates has a deeply negative view of rhetoric and argues for its subordination to philosophy. He considers rhetoric to be merely a knack for persuasion and flattery, not as something which grasps at the forms of truth or justice.
Meno is a dialogue best known for the interlude in which Socrates questions Meno’s slave in order to solve a problem in geometry, about which the slave has no previous knowledge - thus proving Socrates’ point that knowledge is recollection and by extension demonstrating that the soul is pre-existent and immortal. According to Socrates, knowledge is gained through recollection of a previous life in the world of forms. Dialectic is the tool for recollecting such knowledge as the example with the slave demonstrates. If the soul is recollecting from a previous life, it follows that the soul is not the body and that the soul itself is immortal.
Greater Hippias is a private dialogue with a sophist of the same name. The dialogue considers the nature of beauty or what is fine (kalon). Scholars are unsure about its particular authorship as it does not appear to have been written by Plato himself. There is an element of humour in the dialogue as Socrates pretends to be under the influence of a third protagonist who influences what he says in order for him to direct biting criticism towards Hippias. In Lesser Hippias, the sophist argues that being truthful and being a liar are two distinct things, but Socrates argues that one has to first know the truth in order to be a good liar.
In Ion, Socrates argues that Ion’s skill in poetry comes from inspiration rather than expertise or mastery. The same he argues was true of Homer and Hesiod. The thoughts of the poet are inspired or breathed into him without the use of understanding. There is a strong element of humour in the dialogue so one wonders how seriously to take this point, but Socrates suggests that the Greek poets were inspired by god:
I think, the god is showing us, so that we should be in no doubt about it, that these beautiful poems are not human, not even from human beings, but are divine and from gods; that [the] poets are nothing but representatives of the gods, possessed by whoever possesses them. To show that, the god deliberately sang the most beautiful lyric poem through the most worthless poet (p.942).
Given Plato’s biting criticisms of poetry elsewhere in his writings, it is difficult to know what to make of this doctrine of inspiration.
In Menexenus, Socrates gives a funeral oration to honour the deaths of Athenians in battle. It is difficult to know what the exact purpose of this oration is philosophically speaking. It may be intended to show that the philosopher is more than capable of giving a splendid oration just as well as trained orators and sophists. Clitophon is an unusual dialogue in that Socrates himself is the subject of scrutiny. Clitophon desires to know the meaning of virtue, especially of justice. Scholars are unsure regarding the authorship of this dialogue due to its unusual position of criticising Socrates. Clitophon criticizes Socrates for never actually arriving at justice in his dialogues - he is always one step away from a meaningful conclusion.
The Republic is arguably Plato’s most famous dialogue. It is a complex inquiry into the nature of justice as a virtue. It contains many of Plato’s most famous illustrations such as the analogy of the cave and the divided line. Plato imagines an ideal society ruled by philosopher-kings:
Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide … cities will have no rest from evils … nor, I think, will the human race (p. 1100).
The society heavily censors art and poetry which are seen as mere imitations of particulars; true knowledge consists in grasping the forms, especially the form of the Good. This is the business of philosophers who are highly educated in mathematics, harmonics, geometry, astronomy and supremely dialectic. The city is divided into three classes: guardians (the philosopher-kings), auxiliaries (the soldiers), and workers. Justice involves each class doing its own work. This is a larger-than-life projection of justice in the individual which consists in the various parts of the soul doing their own work: the rational, appetitive, and spirited. The soul is said to be just when reason rules over the appetitive and the spirited in much the same way as when guardians rule over the auxiliaries and workers. Plato is suspicious of democracy, perhaps owing to the fact that it was a democracy that executed Socrates, his mentor. He believes that democracy ultimately gives way to tyranny. The best form of government in his view is aristocracy or government by a select few who will be the most highly educated and philosophical.
Timaeus offers an account of the creation of the cosmos by the demiurge who patterns the world of becoming to reflect the world of eternal forms. Timaeus considers the creation of humankind, detailing how the senses were formed which give access to the world of becoming as created by the demiurge. Plato considers how the cosmos is made up of four elements in a similar fashion to pre-Socratic traditions: fire, earth, air, and water. Their various interactions form everything that is visible and available to the senses. He gives a detailed account of how the human body was formed from bones to sinews and flesh. He considers how various diseases arise in the body, but does not seem to reconcile this with the fact that the world was created out of god’s goodness. If this is the case, where do diseases and such evils come from? Plato offers no theodicy. Diseases of the soul include madness and ignorance. The gravest dangers to the soul are excessive pleasures and pains.
Critias is a short dialogue in which Plato tells the tale of conflict between Athens and Atlantis. Of course, we all know the myth that Atlantis itself was eventually destroyed in an earthquake and sank into the sea. Plato left this dialogue incomplete, so it is difficult to see what its purpose is philosophically speaking. It describes in detail the beauty and splendour of Atlantis as well as its military prowess - perhaps the more to show Athens’ splendour in defeating such a formidable foe.
The final dialogue is Plato’s Laws. This is Plato’s last and longest dialogue. It considers political theory and the nature of good government and should be read alongside of the Republic. It contains reflections on legislation and the social and religious regulation of society.
The final dialogue is Plato’s Laws. This is Plato’s last and longest dialogue. It considers political theory and the nature of good government and should be read alongside of the Republic. It contains reflections on legislation and the social and religious regulation of society.
Bibliography
Annas, Julia, An Introduction to Plato’s Republic (New York, 1981).
Benson, Hugh H. (ed.), A Companion to Plato (Oxford and Malden, MA, 2009).
Cooper, John M. and D. S. Hutchinson (eds), Plato Complete Works (Indianapolis and Cambridge, 1997).
Ferrari, G. R. F. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato’s Republic (Cambridge, 2007).
Fine, Gail (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford, 2011).
Fine, Gail, Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology (Oxford, 1999).
Fine, Gail, Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion and the Soul (Oxford, 1999).
Grube, G. M. A., Plato’s Thought (London, 1935).
Herman, Arthur, The Cave and the Light: Plato Verses Aristotle, and the Struggle for the Soul of Western Civilisation (New York, 2013).
Kraut, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato (Cambridge, 1992).
Mason, Andrew A., Plato (Oxford, 2014).
Raven, J. E., Plato’s Thought in the Making (Cambridge, 1965).
Reeve, C. D. C., Philosopher-Kings: The Argument of Plato’s Republic (Princeton, NJ, 1988).
Schofield, Malcom, ‘Plato’ in Edward Craig (ed.), The Shorter Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (London and New York, 2005), pp. 794-812.
Taylor, A. E., Plato: The Man and His Work (London, 1926).
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