The Nicene Creed
We believe in one God, the Father
Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the
Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not
made, consubstantial with the Father; by whom all things were made. Who for us
men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the
Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man. He was crucified for us
under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, and the third day He rose
again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits on the
right hand of God the Father Almighty. From thence He shall come again, with
glory, to judge the living and the dead, and whose Kingdom shall have no end.
And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father
and the Son, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and
glorified, who spoke by the prophets. And in one holy catholic and apostolic
Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the
resurrection of the dead, and the glorious life of the world to come. Amen.
Introduction
The
Nicene Creed—more fully known as the Nicene–Constantinopolitan Creed—stands as
one of the central and defining statements of Christian orthodoxy. First
formulated at the Council of Nicaea in AD 325 and later expanded at the Council
of Constantinople in AD 381, it forms, together with the Apostles’ Creed and
the Athanasian Creed, the doctrinal foundation of historic Christian belief.
The term creed derives from the Latin credo, meaning “I believe.” A
creed, therefore, is an authoritative summary of essential Christian doctrine,
developed within the life of the Church and confessed by the one, holy,
catholic, and apostolic community of faith (cf. Ephesians 4:4–6). These statements
are known as the “ecumenical creeds” because of their universal scope and their
acceptance across the vast majority of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern
Orthodox traditions.
The Nicene Creed was composed chiefly
in response to the teachings of Arius, whose doctrine—known as Arianism—denied
the full divinity of the Son of God. Arius taught that Jesus Christ was a
created angelic being, distinct in essence from the Father and the Holy Spirit.
In order to address the intense controversy surrounding Christ’s nature,
Constantine the Great convened the Council of Nicaea, where Arianism was
formally refuted and condemned as heresy. Theologically, the Nicene Creed is
structured around the doctrine of the Holy Trinity: the confession that there
is one God in three coequal and coeternal persons—the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19; 2 Corinthians 13:14). These three are one in power,
glory, and divine essence (Deuteronomy 6:4; John 10:30). The original 325 AD
formulation explicitly affirms that Jesus Christ is “begotten, not made” and
“of one substance” (homoousios) with the Father—“very God of very God”
(John 1:1; Hebrews 1:3).
In the sixth century, certain Latin‑speaking
churches added the term filioque (“and the Son”) to the description of
the Holy Spirit’s procession, asserting that the Spirit proceeds from the
Father and the Son (John 15:26). This addition was received in the Western
Church but rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church, which maintains that the
Spirit proceeds from the Father alone as the fons divinitatis (“fount of
deity”). The dispute over the filioque clause became one of the principal
factors contributing to the East–West Schism and remains a point of theological
discussion to this day. The inclusion of the phrase “and the Son” was intended
to safeguard the full deity of Christ, who is confessed as coequal and
coeternal with the Father (John 5:23; Philippians 2:6).
The Nicene Creed is accepted by the
overwhelming majority of orthodox Christians as an authoritative confession of
faith. It is rejected, however, by certain non‑Trinitarian groups, such as
Jehovah’s Witnesses and Latter‑day Saints. Historically, the Nicene Creed has
also been known as the “symbol of faith,” reflecting its role as a unifying
confessional document and a token of Christian identity throughout the world.
As R. B. Kuiper observes, “The doctrine of the Trinity [taught by the symbol of
faith] is basic to the Christian religion. It is no exaggeration to assert that
the whole of Christianity stands or falls with it.” It is the distinguishing
doctrine of the Christian faith and the foundation of its uniqueness. J. I.
Packer similarly affirms, “The Trinity is the basis of the Gospel, and the
Gospel is a declaration of the Trinity in action” (cf. John 3:16–17; Ephesians
1:3–14).
1. We
believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all
things visible and invisible.
The
first article of the Nicene Creed concerns the doctrine of God, known in
dogmatics as theology proper. The word theology derives from the Greek theos
(“God”) and logia (“the doctrine” or “study” of God). Although the Creed
focuses specifically on the person of the Father as the “Maker of heaven and
earth,” creation may rightly be described as the work of all three persons of
the Godhead (cf. Genesis 1:1–2; John 1:1–3; Colossians 1:16). The Nicene Creed
begins by affirming monotheism—the belief that God is one. While some
religions, such as Hinduism, teach a plurality of gods and goddesses, and
ancient Greek and Roman religions embraced polytheism, Christianity proclaims
that there is only one God. The Shema prayer encapsulates the essence of Judeo‑Christian
faith: “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God is one LORD” (Deuteronomy 6:4).
Scripture repeatedly affirms this truth: “I am the LORD, and there is none
else, there is no God beside me” (Isaiah 45:5); “I am the first, and I am the
last; and besides me there is no God” (Isaiah 44:6). The First Commandment
likewise teaches exclusive devotion to the one true God: “Thou shalt have no
other gods before me” (Exodus 20:3). In the New Testament, Paul writes, “For
there is one God, and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus”
(1 Timothy 2:5).
These affirmations raise important
questions about the essence of God. Scripture teaches that God is, by nature, a
most pure and holy Spirit: “God is a Spirit: and they that worship him must
worship him in spirit and in truth” (John 4:24). The Westminster Shorter
Catechism famously defines God as “a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and
unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and
truth” (Q&A 4). As Spirit, God does not possess a body and is not composed
of parts; he is simple rather than composite. He exists beyond the limitations
of the physical world. He is infinite—without boundaries or limits—and
transcends space and time as Lord of heaven and earth (cf. 1 Kings 8:27; Psalm
139:7–10). He is eternal, existing outside of time, as a transtemporal being.
In the words of the Psalmist, “Thou art the same, and thy years shall have no
end” (Psalm 102:27). God has no beginning, middle, or end. He is unchanging,
the same yesterday, today, and forever: “I am the LORD, I change not” (Malachi
3:6). As A. W. Pink observes, “God cannot change for the better, for He is
perfect; and being perfect, He cannot change for the worse.” According to
Stephen Charnock, the existence of God is the foundation of all religion.
Scripture presupposes his existence from its opening words: “In the beginning
God…” (Genesis 1:1). God is the great reality, an absolute personality, the Creator and Redeemer of humankind. He is infinitely wise and all‑knowing—omniscient
(cf. Psalm 147:4–5). Isaac Watts captures this beautifully in poetic form:
“He formed the stars, those
heavenly flames, He counts their numbers, calls their names; His wisdom’s vast,
and knows no bound, A deep where all our thoughts are drowned.”
God is also almighty—omnipotent.
“There is power in God to lay prostrate the whole world … whenever it may
please him” (John Calvin). Scripture declares, “I am the Almighty God” (Genesis
17:1). He is also holy: “Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts: the whole earth
is full of his glory” (Isaiah 6:3). “No attribute of God is more dreadful to
sinners than his holiness” (Matthew Henry). The Father is holy, the Son is
holy, and the Spirit is holy (cf. Revelation 4:8; Acts 3:14). Holiness is the
very “Godness” of God; even sinless angels veil their faces before him (Isaiah
6:2). The more we approach true holiness, the closer we come to divinity. To be
holy is to be divine. As
a person grows in holiness—meaning Christlikeness, moral purity, love,
humility, and alignment with God’s will—they increasingly reflect the character
of God. They do not become divine, but they participate more fully in God’s
life and the divine nature.
God is also just—scrupulously fair in
all his dealings with humanity. “Whenever you hear the glory of God mentioned,
think also of his justice” (Calvin). He always does what is right (cf.
Deuteronomy 32:4). Whatever God does is just by virtue of his perfect nature.
Yet he is not only just; he is also good. “O taste and see that the LORD is
good” (Psalm 34:8). When the Lord revealed himself to Moses, he proclaimed his
goodness, mercy, and steadfast love (Exodus 34:6–7). Scripture also declares,
“God is love” (1 John 4:8). Annie Johnson Flint expresses this truth memorably:
“His love has no limits, His grace has no measure, His power no boundary known
unto men; For out of His infinite riches in Jesus, He giveth, and giveth, and
giveth again.” Finally, God is faithful and true. “Nothing is deemed more
precious by God than truth” (Calvin). He is the embodiment of truth. Jesus
says, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6). Contra postmodernism,
if God exists, truth exists, for he is the truth. Objective reality is grounded
in the character of God.
The Nicene Creed defines God as the
Creator of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible. Heaven may
refer to the starry heavens above (Genesis 1:14–18) or the highest heaven where
God dwells with his saints and angels (1 Kings 8:30; Hebrews 12:22). Earth
encompasses everything beneath heaven. The visible includes what we can see,
hear, smell, taste, and touch; the invisible includes the microscopically small
(cf. Colossians 1:17) and, more importantly, spiritual beings such as angels
and demons (Hebrews 1:14; Ephesians 6:12). Christian theology teaches that God
creates ex nihilo—“out of nothing.” He does not shape pre‑existing
matter like a Platonic demiurge; rather, he brings all things into being by the
power of his word: “For he spake, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood
fast” (Psalm 33:9). “The creation is both a monument of God’s power and a
looking glass in which we may see His wisdom” (Thomas Watson). “The heavens
declare the glory of God” (Psalm 19:1). Creation testifies to its Creator. Paul
affirms this in Romans: “The invisible things of him… are clearly seen, being
understood by the things that are made” (Romans 1:20). The fingerprints of God
are imprinted on creation, leaving humanity without excuse on the Day of
Judgment.
Two philosophical arguments relate to the doctrine of creation. The first is the cosmological argument, which asks why the universe exists at all. It is often expressed as follows: “Everything that begins to exist has a cause. The universe began to exist. Therefore, the universe has a cause.” This argument appeals to common‑sense causation and is supported by scientific evidence suggesting a cosmic beginning (e.g. the Big Bang Theory). Yet it raises questions about whether the first cause must be divine or whether an infinite regress is impossible. The second argument is “from design,” also known as the teleological argument. Advocates of intelligent design argue that complexity, fine‑tuning, and order in the universe point to an intelligent designer. William Paley famously illustrated this with his watchmaker analogy in his book Natural Theology (1802). Modern versions of this argument note that physical constants are precisely calibrated for life; even minute changes would render the universe uninhabitable. Some argue that evolution by natural selection (as taught by Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species, 1859) explains biological complexity. Yet many theistic philosophers and Christian scientists accept progressive creationism, while also pointing to the irreducible complexity of biological systems such as molecular machines and mammalian cells. For example, the human cell is vastly more complex than Paley’s watch, yet we are asked to believe it arose by chance – this is something many Christians find difficult to accept. The telos of creation should evoke a sense of awe and wonder. This is what many Christians instinctively feel as they admire the beauty and intricacy of God’s creation. Creation should lead us to worship God in spirit and in truth. The hymnwriter captures this idea of Christian worship in a nutshell: “All creatures of our God and King, Lift up your voice and with us sing: Alleluia! Alleluia! Thou burning sun with golden beam, Thou silver moon with softer gleam, O praise Him, O praise Him, Alleluia! Alleluia! Alleluia!”
2. And
in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father
before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not made,
consubstantial with the Father; by whom all things were made.
Christology stands at the very heart of the
Nicene Creed: “We believe … in one Lord Jesus Christ.” The New Testament
describes Jesus as Lord (kyrios), the Greek equivalent of the divine
name YHWH. In other words, Jesus is YHWH—he is God (cf. Philippians 2:11;
Romans 10:9–13). As Oswald Chambers observes, “The characteristics of God
Almighty are mirrored for us in Jesus Christ. Therefore, if we want to know
what God is like we must study Jesus Christ.” This is because the Son is “the
brightness of the Father’s glory and the express image of his person” (Hebrews
1:3). Ambrose of Milan explains: “As the print of the seal on the wax is the
express image of the seal itself, so Christ is the express image—the perfect
representation—of God.” Jesus is also YHWH in relation to salvation.
He is Jehovah Jesus. His name means “YHWH saves” or “the LORD is salvation.”
The angel declares to Joseph concerning Mary: “Thou shalt call his name JESUS:
for he shall save his people from their sins” (Matthew 1:21). His title Christ
(Christos) means “Messiah” or “Anointed One.” Jesus is the long‑awaited
Messiah promised to Israel (cf. Psalm 2:2; John 1:41). As Messiah, he is
anointed to the threefold office (munus triplex) of Prophet (munus propheticum),
Priest (munus sacerdotale), and King (munus regium). The
Heidelberg Catechism beautifully interprets the Messianic title in light of
this threefold office: “Why is He
called Christ, that is, Anointed? Because He is ordained of God the Father, and
anointed with the Holy Ghost, to be our chief Prophet and Teacher, who fully
reveals to us the secret counsel and will of God concerning our redemption; to
be our only High Priest, who by the one sacrifice of His body has redeemed us,
and who continually intercedes for us before the Father; and to be our eternal
King, who governs us by His Word and Spirit, and who defends and preserves us
in the salvation He has purchased for us.” Christ is our Prophet, revealing the
Father to us by his Word and Spirit (John 1:18; 14:24). He is our High Priest,
offering himself as the perfect sacrifice for sin and continually interceding
for us (Hebrews 7:25; 9:11–14). He is our eternal King, ruling and defending
his people (Psalm 2:6; Revelation 19:16).
The Creed further describes Jesus as “the only
begotten Son of God,” echoing the famous words of John 3:16. It affirms that
the Son is eternally begotten of the Father— “begotten before all worlds.” As
J. A. Bengel notes, “He who sees the Son sees the Father in the face of Christ.
The Son exactly represents and reflects the Father.” This eternal “begetting”
does not imply that Christ had a beginning. Rather, it expresses the Son’s
eternal relationship to the Father. He is “begotten, not made”—not a creature,
as Arius taught, but the Father’s coequal and coeternal Son (cf. John 1:1–2;
5:26). The Creed poetically describes the Son as “Light of Light.” The Father
is the fons divinitatis, the fount of deity within the Trinity—not in
time, but in eternity. Just as light radiates from the sun, so the Son
eternally radiates from the Father. The Son is the radiance of the Father’s
glory (Hebrews 1:3). The light that shines from the sun is of the same nature
as the sun itself; likewise, the Son shares the same divine essence as the
Father. William Bridge captures this truth: “God is best known in Christ; the
sun is not seen but by the light of the sun.” The Creed continues by arguing
that Jesus is “very God of very God.” John’s Gospel opens with the majestic
declaration: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the
Word was God” (John 1:1–3). Jesus Christ is eternal God—already existing from before
the creation of the world (John 8:58; Genesis 1:1; Proverbs 8:22–31). He is the
Logos, the divine Word who perfectly expresses God’s nature and character
(Colossians 1:15; Hebrews 1:3). He reveals the Father and his eternal purposes
(John 1:18; 14:9). He was with the Father in a unique relationship from all
eternity, distinct in person yet one in divine essence (John 17:5, 24). As
such, he is the proper object of worship and adoration (John 20:28; Philippians
2:6; Revelation 5:12–14).
According
to the Creed, the Son is consubstantial—“of one essence”—with God the Father.
Jesus himself says, “I and my Father are one” (John 10:30). “He that hath seen
me hath seen the Father” (John 14:9). “He that seeth me seeth him that sent me”
(John 12:45). He also declares that “the Son can do nothing of himself, but
what he seeth the Father do” (John 5:19). Paul affirms that Christ is “the
image of the invisible God” (Colossians 1:15). The writer to the Hebrews says
he is “the brightness of his glory and the express image of his person”
(Hebrews 1:3). The Creed concludes this section by affirming that Christ is the
one “by whom all things were made.” He is the Creator of the entire universe,
including angels, demons, and humanity (John 1:10; Colossians 1:16–17; Hebrews
1:2, 10–12). In other words, Christ is not a created being—as Arius claimed—but
the Creator himself. All things were made by him, through him, and for him – to
the praise of his eternal glory.
3. Who
for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by
the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man.
The prologue to John’s Gospel expresses the
mystery of the incarnation with striking clarity: “And the Word was made flesh,
and dwelt among us (and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten
of the Father), full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). These are words worthy of
being written in gold. The Lord Jesus Christ truly became man—consubstantial
with us according to his humanity. John’s language is deliberately down to
earth: the eternal Word became flesh. He took on real human nature—meat, bone,
blood, and sinew. He now possesses a human heart, a human brain, human organs,
and a fully human physiology. He has a human mind, human emotions, and human
affections. He is psychologically human in every way. He is “touched with the
feeling of our infirmities,” being like us in every respect, yet without sin
(Hebrews 4:15). He was born “in the likeness of sinful flesh” (Romans 8:3), yet
remained himself personally sinless. Perfect God, perfect man. John Calvin
captures this beautifully: “Christ voluntarily took upon himself everything
that is inseparable from human nature.” He is at once very God of very God and
truly man according to his human nature. He is God in the flesh—God veiled, as
it were, under the covering of humanity. He is God incognito, as Luther
famously taught.
The Creed
gives the reason for the incarnation: “for us men and for our salvation.” Athanasius
famously wrote, “Christ became what we are that He might make us what He is.”
This Athanasian insight expresses the doctrine of theosis or divinization:
what Christ has not assumed, he has not healed. Because he assumed the fullness
of human nature, he is able to redeem humanity completely. By uniting human
nature to his divine person, Christ ennobles and restores it, raising fallen
humanity to communion with God and granting us adoption as sons and daughters
of the Father (Galatians 4:4–7). Through union with Christ, believers become
“partakers of the divine nature” (2 Peter 1:4). Christians are not merely
called to follow God, but to be transformed into his likeness (Romans 8:29; 2
Corinthians 3:18) – to become imitators of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Given
that Jesus Christ is truly man—with a true human heart—he is able to
sympathize with us. Because he is truly God, he is mighty to save us. B. B.
Warfield captures this dual truth magnificently: “The glory of the incarnation
is that it presents to our adoring gaze not a humanized God or a deified man,
but a true God‑man [Greek Theanthropos]—one who is all that God is and
at the same time all that man is: one on whose almighty arm we can rest and to
whose human sympathy we can appeal.” Christ remains fully human even now, after his
ascension and during his heavenly session. Hebrews describes him as our Great
High Priest who intercedes for us and who understands our weakness (Hebrews
4:14–16; 7:25). Jesus knows exactly what it is to be human. He understands our
frailty, our temptations, our sorrows, and our limitations—yet he himself
remained without sin.
Not only
was Christ incarnate, but he was born of a virgin. Mary is known theologically
as Theotokos—the “God‑bearer” or “mother of God.” She did not give birth
to a mere human being, but to God the Son in human flesh (Luke 1:35). His
humanity was taken from the Virgin Mary; his divinity is eternal, begotten of
the Father before all ages. Thomas Watson writes, “As bread is made of wheat
and wine is made of grapes, so Christ is made of a woman. His body was part of
the flesh and substance of the virgin.” Jesus is fully God—consubstantial with
the Father and the Spirit—and fully man, born of the Virgin Mary. These two
natures exist in the one person of Christ “without confusion, without change,
without division, and without separation,” as the Council of Chalcedon
declared. The divine and human natures are not blended into a third thing, nor
is Christ a hybrid being. There is no subtraction of divinity in the
incarnation—only the addition of humanity. Jesus is not two persons or two
Christs, but one person with two natures. These natures, once united, can never
be divided. He is the God‑man for all eternity. The prophet
Isaiah foretold the virgin birth centuries before its fulfilment: “Behold, a
virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel”
(Isaiah 7:14). Mary was indeed a virgin when she conceived Jesus. She had never
known a man. “Before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy
Ghost” (Matthew 1:18). The conception—not the birth—was miraculous. Jesus’
birth was entirely normal; his conception was entirely divine. Other passages
affirm this truth (Matthew 1:22–25; Luke 1:26–27, 34–35). Jesus was conceived
by the sovereign power of the Holy Spirit in the womb of a virgin—even Mary,
the Mother of God. This mystery should evoke our deepest worship.
Charles Wesley expressed it with poetic wonder: “Let earth and heaven combine, Angels and men
agree, To praise in songs divine, The incarnate Deity, Our God contracted to a
span, Incomprehensibly made man.”
4.
He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and
suffered, and was buried, and the third day He rose again according to the
Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of God the
Father Almighty.
Pontius Pilate
is, at first glance, a strange name to encounter in a creed concerned with
Christian theology. Yet his inclusion serves a vital purpose: it anchors the
crucifixion of Christ in real history. Jesus was crucified in the concrete
reality of space and time, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from
approximately 26–36 AD under Emperor Tiberius (42 BC–AD 37). The truths of
Christianity are fundamentally rooted in history. These things really happened.
We are dealing with facts. They are not timeless myths or abstract spiritual
principles, but events that unfolded in the real world as surely as any other
historical fact. Jesus Christ suffered—He suffered degradation at the hands of
both Roman and Jewish authorities (Mark 15:15; John 19:1–16). He was crucified—nailed
to a cross—for human sin (1 Peter 2:24). As John Calvin memorably wrote, “There
is no tribunal so magnificent, no throne so stately, no show of triumph so
distinguished, no chariot so elevated as is the gibbet on which Christ has
subdued death and the devil.” He was buried; they laid Him in a tomb (Matthew
27:59–60). He died in the reality of history. But He did not remain dead. On
the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures (1 Corinthians 15:3–8).
The best news the world has ever heard came from a graveyard. As the hymnwriter
Samuel Medley exults: “I know that my Redeemer lives! What joy the blest
assurance gives! He lives, He lives, who once was dead; He lives, my
everlasting Head!” Remember that these events took place while Pontius Pilate
was governor of Judea. We are dealing with history here, not legend, not myth.
As A. W. Tozer insisted, “The resurrection of Christ and the fact of the empty
tomb are not [just] part of the world’s complex and continuing mythologies.
This is not a Santa Claus tale – it is history, and it is reality.” The Nicene
Creed therefore anchors our redemption in the realm of fact, not in mythology,
or legend. Pilate’s name safeguards the truth that Christ died at a particular
time, in a particular place, within a particular political context. The
Christian gospel insists that salvation is not merely a theological idea but an
historical event.
Regarding His death, the Creed insists
that it was “for us” (Romans 5:8; Galatians 2:20). In other words, it was a substitutionary
death. Jesus died in our place; He was condemned in the sinner’s stead (Isaiah
53:5–6). The crucifixion was not accident or a tragedy—it was the intentional,
vicarious, and salvific sacrifice of the Son of God for the salvation of the
whole world (John 10:15–18). Theologians have called this a penal
substitutionary sacrifice. This means that Christ bears our guilt and suffers
our punishment (2 Corinthians 5:21). It is penal in terms of Christ suffering
our punishment. It is substitutionary in the fact that Christ takes our place. This
does not exclude other biblical motifs. In the Christus Victor model,
Christ defeats sin, death, and the devil (Colossians 2:15). In terms of moral suasion,
the atonement also has an impact upon us as we behold divine love and respond
with repentance and faith (1 John 4:9–11). In summary, the cross is God’s
self-giving love in action, whereby He assumes the guilt of our sin and suffers
the penalty due to us, bringing full redemption, pardon, and forgiveness to God’s
elect people (Ephesians 1:7). As Cecil Frances Alexander wrote: “He died that
we might be forgiven, He died to make us good; that we might go at last to
heaven, saved by His precious blood.”
The Creed affirms the reality of
Jesus’s suffering to counter early heresies such as Docetism, which denied His
true humanity. If Christ were not truly human, He could not truly suffer. But
He did suffer—physically, emotionally, and spiritually (Hebrews 4:15; Matthew
26:38). He knows the depths of human pain. He has been there. He understands
your reality in this broken world. There is a profound solidarity between
Christ and the believer in human suffering. His burial confirms that Jesus did
not merely appear to die. He did not swoon or faint. He was confirmed dead and
was buried (John 19:33–42). He faced death—the great enemy of humanity—and
endured it for us (1 Corinthians 15:26). His burial sets the stage for His
resurrection and victory over sin, death, and hell. But Jesus Christ did not
stay dead. Praise God! He is not dead! On the third day He rose again (Luke
24:7). His resurrection was a historical event, witnessed and proclaimed by His
disciples; a theological event, in which the Father vindicated the Son (Romans
1:4); and an eschatological event as the first fruits of the new creation and
of the future resurrection of God’s people (1 Corinthians 15:20–23). All of
this was “according to the Scriptures,” meaning it fulfilled God’s
long-promised plan of redemption stretching back to the protoevangelium of
Genesis 3:15: “And I will put enmity between thee and the woman…” The
hymnwriter captures its essence: “Bruised was the dragon by the Son, Though two
had wounds, there conquered One – and Jesus was His name” (William Williams, Pantycelyn).
Not only did Christ
rise again—He also ascended into heaven (Acts 1:9–11). This was not His
departure from humanity, for He sent the Holy Spirit to be with us (John
14:16–18), but His enthronement at the right hand of God. The ascension marks
the transition from His earthly ministry (humiliation) to His heavenly kingship
(exaltation). Jesus Christ is not an absent deity but an enthroned Saviour. He
now sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty (Hebrews 1:3). The right
hand of God signifies power, rule, and honour (Psalm 110:1). Christ reigns over
all earthly powers (Ephesians 1:20–22). His work of atonement is finished—He
has sat down. He intercedes continually as High Priest for His redeemed people
(Hebrews 7:25). He pours out the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:33). He rules and reigns
over all as sovereign Lord of heaven and earth. My friends, we live in the day
of grace, in the light of the resurrection, Jesus is not dead – He is alive,
and by His Spirit He effectually applies redemption to our hearts (Titus 3:5; 1
Thessalonians 4:3). “In His life Christ is an example showing us how to live;
in His death, He is a sacrifice satisfying for our sins; in His resurrection, a
conqueror; in His ascension, a king; [and] in His intercession, a [great] High
Priest” (Martin Luther).
5. From
thence He shall come again, with glory, to judge the living and the dead, and
whose Kingdom shall have no end.
This article
follows naturally from the previous one, showing its continuity with the
theology already expounded. Jesus is said to come again “from thence”—that is, from
the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33; Hebrews 1:3). Though it has engendered
much controversy, eschatology is an essential doctrine of the Christian faith.
We must insist that Christ will come bodily a second time to judge the living
and the dead (2 Timothy 4:1). The evangelical Bishop J. C. Ryle captures the
contrast between Christ’s first advent (his humiliation) and His second advent
(or exaltation) in a nutshell:
“The second coming of Christ shall be
utterly unlike the first. He came the first time in weakness, a tender infant,
born of a poor woman in the manger at Bethlehem, unnoticed, unhonoured, and
scarcely known. He shall come the second time in royal dignity, with the armies
of heaven around him, to be known, recognized, and feared, by all the tribes of
the earth. He came the first time to suffer – to bear our sins, to be reckoned
a curse, to be despised, rejected, unjustly condemned, and slain. He shall come
a second time to reign – to put down every enemy beneath his feet, to take the
kingdoms of this world for his inheritance, to rule them with righteousness, to
judge all men, and to live forevermore.”
Christ
will return from His present heavenly session to judge all humanity with
justice and fairness. He will come from the right hand of God the Father
Almighty, not from a place of obscurity or weakness as with his first advent.
His second coming continues the theme of exaltation that includes His resurrection
(Romans 1:4), ascension (Acts 1:9), and return in glory (Matthew 25:31) to
judge the living and the dead. This means that Christ’s reign is ongoing—“already,
but not yet”. He is already reigning in heaven at the right hand of God
(1 Corinthians 15:25), but His Parousia is not yet fully accomplished.
Christ will establish His kingdom throughout the world through the preaching of
the Gospel (Matthew 24:14), through authentic revivals of religion as Jonathan
Edwards famously taught, and through the establishment of His millennial
kingdom on earth (Revelation 20:1–6) prior to his return. This belief in a
post-millennial return of Christ was dubbed by Iain Murray as “the Puritan hope”,
since many Puritan and Reformed divines believed that Christ would build His
kingdom on earth spiritually through His reign in the hearts of His elect
people prior to his bodily return in glory to judge the living and the dead. While
you may differ with me on matters of eschatology, we can both agree to one
certainty: Jesus is coming back with glory and power to judge all humanity.
Following the spiritual reign of Christ during the millennium, Jesus will return bodily to earth with glory. Where the first advent was marked by humility (Philippians 2:6–8), the second is marked by majesty (Revelation 19:11–16). His return will be: visible—not hidden, symbolic, or merely spiritual (Revelation 1:7); literal, physical, and bodily—from heaven to earth (Acts 1:11); majestic—displaying the splendor of the King (Titus 2:13); and vindicating—revealing who Christ is as the Lord of heaven and earth (Philippians 2:9–11). His return will not mark His abandonment of the world but the consummation of His redemptive work for the cosmos (Romans 8:19–23). He will restore all things and establish a new heaven and a new earth wherein righteousness dwells (2 Peter 3:13; Revelation 21:1–5). The purpose of His second coming will be “to judge the living and the dead.” In this regard, judgment is an essential part of the Gospel message (Acts 17:31). You cannot preach heaven without hell. Jesus is a most righteous and holy Judge (John 5:22). One day, everyone’s deeds will be brought to light (Romans 2:16). We shall all stand before the judgment seat of Christ (2 Corinthians 5:10) and give an account for the way we have lived (Romans 14:12). Christ will judge fairly; none will go to everlasting perdition unjustly.
Jesus Christ, as the God‑Man, is perfectly righteous and perfectly compassionate (Hebrews 4:15). Those who have loved Him in life will reign with Him in glory (2 Timothy 2:12). While those who have rejected Him in life will be rejected by Him in death (Matthew 7:23). Jesus is not an unsympathetic Judge: as a real man, He knows the human condition from within. He is also the One who bore judgment for His people (Isaiah 53:5–6). To borrow an idea from the Swiss Reformed theologian Karl Barth, Jesus was the “Judge judged in our place.” He knows what it is to come under the righteous indignation of a holy God, for He drank the cup of wrath of God to the dregs (Matthew 26:39; John 18:11). The phrase “the living and the dead” refers to all people universally—those who have died and those who are alive when Christ returns (1 Thessalonians 4:16–17). It speaks of equity: all will be measured by the same divine standard. It speaks of hope: wrongs will be righted, justice restored, and creation liberated from its bondage to corruption (Romans 8:21). Judgment is not merely punitive but also restorative. There is a new heaven and new earth awaiting those who have loved the Lord Jesus (Revelation 21:7). There is a heaven for believers, and a hell for the unrepentant and unregenerate (Matthew 25:46). Though it pains me even to mention it, Scripture nonetheless speaks of a place of outer darkness, where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matthew 8:12), a lake of fire (Revelation 20:14–15), where the worm does not die and the fire is not quenched (Mark 9:48)—an eternal hell and final judgment for the reprobate, the devil, and all his angels (Revelation 20:10, 14–15). For the elect, there is eternal happiness with Christ in a kingdom that shall have no end (Luke 1:33).
The Nicene Creed reflects Daniel 7 and Luke 1:33 in its affirmation that the kingdom of the Son of God is an everlasting kingdom. It is unshakeable (Hebrews 12:28), universal—spanning heaven and earth (Psalm 103:19), and Life‑giving—marked by righteousness, peace, and joy (Romans 14:17). The tree of life will be there (Revelation 22:2), and the whole kingdom will be resplendent with holiness and everlasting joy. One hymnwriter says exquisitely: “The Lamb is all the glory in Immanuel’s land” (Anne Ross Cousin). Jesus is the heart of heaven. Those who have loved Jesus in life, will love him eternally in heaven. Frances Ridley Havergal beautifully expresses this eschatological hope: “Oh, the joy to see Thee reigning, Thee, my own beloved Lord! Every tongue Thy name confessing, Worship, honour, glory, blessing, Brought to Thee with glad accord—Thee, my Master and my Friend, Vindicated and enthroned, Unto earth’s remotest end, Glorified, adored, and owned!”
6. And
in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father and
the Son, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified,
who spoke by the prophets.
The Calvinistic Baptist preacher Charles
Haddon Spurgeon once remarked, “A dead creed is of no use; we must have our
creed baptized with the Holy Ghost.” As we approach the doctrine of the Holy
Spirit in the Nicene Creed, we must cultivate hearts that are receptive to the presence
and work of the Holy Spirit. The true Christian is one born of the Spirit (John
3:5–8) and sanctified by the Spirit (1 Peter 1:2), whom the Lord Jesus sent
into the world after His ascension (John 16:7). He is our Paraclete, our
Comforter, Helper, and Friend in the work of the Gospel (John 14:16–17). The Nicene
Creed reminds us that the Holy Spirit is not an impersonal force like gravity
or electromagnetism. He is a divine Person. Scripture attributes to Him the
qualities of personality such as intellect (1 Corinthians 2:10–11), will (1
Corinthians 12:11), emotion (Ephesians 4:30), and personal agency (Acts 13:2).
To confess the Spirit is to confess the third Person of the Holy Trinity—fully
and eternally God, yet personally distinct from the Father and the Son. The Creed
describes the Spirit as “the Lord and Giver of Life.” In calling Him “Lord,”
believers place Him unequivocally within the divine identity (2 Corinthians
3:17). Not only is He Lord, but He is also the Giver of Life, reflecting His
role in creation, where He hovered over the waters and brought forth life
(Genesis 1:2); in providence, where He sustains all living things (Psalm
104:30); and in redemption, where He regenerates and sanctifies God’s elect
(Titus 3:5; Galatians 5:22–23). The Spirit gives life in every sphere—cosmic,
ecclesial, and personal.
According
to the Nicene Creed, the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son.”
This refers to His timeless, personal origin within the Godhead. Just as the
Son is eternally begotten of the Father, so the Spirit eternally proceeds from
the Father and the Son (John 15:26; Galatians 4:6). There was never a time when
God was without the Spirit, nor the Spirit without God. Procession is a relational,
not a temporal, concept. It does not describe something that happened in the
Spirit’s past, but who He eternally is in relation to the Father and the Son. Thus,
the Spirit is coequal and coeternal with the Father and the Son. The Father is
unbegotten; the Son is eternally begotten of the Father; the Spirit eternally
proceeds from the Father and the Son. Scripture reveals this much about the
inner life of the Triune God, though we confess these things to be deeply
mysterious. It is a wise saying of the Dutch Reformed: “The knowledge of God is
the knowledge of a mystery” (Herman Bavinck). The Creed continues: “Who with
the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified.” Worship belongs
to the Spirit because He is God. It is entirely appropriate for Christians to
worship and glorify the Holy Spirit, though the ordinary pattern of prayer is to
the Father, through the Son, in the power of the Spirit (Ephesians 2:18). The
Spirit is not subordinate in essence; He is coequal in deity, coeternal in
being, and shares the divine majesty with the Father and the Son (Matthew
28:19; Revelation 1:4). The Creed firmly rejects any form of subordinationism.
The Holy Spirit is fully, truly, and eternally God, worthy of the Church’s
worship, honour, and adoration.
The Creed
also affirms that the Spirit “spoke by the prophets.” The Spirit is a speaking
God—the divine author of Holy Scripture. The prophets of the Old Testament
spoke as they were “carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Peter 1:21). Jesus
promised that the Spirit would guide the apostles into all truth (John 16:13). In
other words, the entire biblical canon is the work of the Spirit of God. Paul
writes to Timothy, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God” (2 Timothy
3:16). The Greek word theopneustos means “God‑breathed”—from Theos
(God) and Pneuma (Spirit/Breath). Scripture is therefore the very breath
of God the Holy Spirit. The words of the Bible are His words—His voice, His
breath. Its authority derives from this divine origin. Spurgeon emphasised the
necessity of the Spirit’s work in applying Scripture to the human heart: “Unless
the Holy Spirit blesses the Word, we who preach the gospel are of all men most
miserable … If the Holy Ghost does not regenerate them, we cannot … We might as
well speak to the ear of a corpse.” The Spirit must effectually apply the Word
of God to the souls of those who hear it. He must breathe life into dead
sinners (Ezekiel 37:4–6). As Spurgeon said, “It were better to speak six words
in the power of the Holy Ghost than to preach seventy years of sermons without
the Spirit.” Only by the illumination of the Spirit of God can we rightly
understand the Word of God (1 Corinthians 2:12–14). Only by His regenerating
work can we see the kingdom of heaven (John 3:3–5). Only by His sanctifying
power can we enter the holy place of God’s dwelling – for “without holiness no
man shall see the Lord” (Hebrews 12:14).
7.
And in one holy catholic and apostolic Church; we
acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrection
of the dead, and the glorious life of the world to come. Amen.
The
final article of the Nicene Creed gathers together several great theological
themes: the identity of the Church, the importance of the sacraments, and the
eschatological hope of all believers. It moves from the fellowship of the
redeemed in the body of Christ, to the outward means of grace—such as baptism
for the remission of sins—and finally to the consummation of all things at the
end of the age. This section forms the Creed’s great doxological crescendo. The
Creed begins by affirming that there is “One Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic
Church.” Outside of this Church there is no ordinary possibility of salvation.
If we do not have the Church as our mother, we cannot have God as our Father –
so St. Augustine famously argued. The two concepts (church + adoption) go hand
in hand. This is not a sociological observation. The visible Church is divided
into many denominations—Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant, along
with Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist, Pentecostal, and
Charismatic traditions. Yet the invisible Church, the whole company of God’s
elect, is perfectly united in Christ, regardless of visible distinctions. Christ
has one body (Ephesians 4:4), one bride (Revelation 19:7), and one flock under
one Shepherd (John 10:16). The unity of the Church is not grounded in human
organisation but in the Triune God who calls, gathers, and sanctifies His
people. “Rabbi” John Duncan, the 19th‑century Scottish Presbyterian theologian,
captured this idea beautifully: “I am first a Christian, next a Catholic,
then a Calvinist, fourth a Paedobaptist, and fifth a Presbyterian. I cannot
reverse the order.” Our identity in Christ must come first; denominational
distinctives follow afterwards.
The Church is holy because she belongs
to a holy God (1 Peter 2:9), because she is sanctified by the Spirit (1
Corinthians 6:11), and because she is called to live in holiness (Ephesians
1:4). Her holiness is both positional (in Christ) and progressive (in
sanctification). “Catholic” means universal—the Church of all times and all
places. It is the global community of saints spanning every nation, kindred,
people, and tongue (Revelation 7:9; 5:9). Therefore, there is no room for
racism, xenophobia, or prejudice in the Church of God. The church is fundamentally
a multicultural institution. She proclaims the whole counsel of God (Acts
20:27) and makes disciples of all nations. She is not confined to any one
culture, denomination, or historical period. The church is a globalised body of
saints who love the Lord Jesus and confess his name. The Church is apostolic
because she is built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets (Ephesians
2:20), she preserves the apostolic faith once delivered to the saints (Jude 3),
and continues the apostolic mission (Matthew 28:18–20). From a Protestant
perspective, apostolicity is defined not by historical succession alone but by doctrinal
fidelity to the teaching of the apostles in Scripture. The Church is essential
to Christian life. As Franklin Clark Fry observed, “A person who says he
believes in God but never goes to church is like one who says he believes in
education but never goes to school.” We must make every effort to attend the
means of grace, hear the Word of God preached, partake of the sacraments, participate
in prayer, and come under the discipline of the Word.
The Creed next affirms “one baptism for the remission of sins,” echoing Paul’s words: “One Lord, one faith, one baptism” (Ephesians 4:5). Baptism is the outward sign of inward grace—the sacrament of initiation into the Church and the seal of union with Christ. It signifies the washing away of sins (Acts 22:16), union with Christ in His death and resurrection (Romans 6:3–4), the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38), and incorporation into the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13) As J. C. Ryle notes, “Baptism is an ordinance of great simplicity … The inward part, or thing signified, is that washing in the blood of Christ, and inward cleansing of the heart by the Holy Ghost, without which no one can be saved. However, baptism does not work regeneration ex opere operato, as Roman Catholics and some High Church Anglicans maintain. It is an outward sign of the Spirit’s inward work—a visible token of the forgiveness of sins through the blood of Christ. It is a sign of grace, not grace itself. It is properly and dutifully administered to children of the covenant in Reformed churches.
The Creed concludes with the Church’s
eschatological hope: “We look for the resurrection of the dead and the glorious
life of the world to come.” Christians do not hope to be disembodied souls
forever, but embodied saints in a renewed creation. We believe in the resurrection
of the body—a literal, physical resurrection from the grave. As Christ was
raised bodily, so shall believers be raised and glorified with Him. This hope was
proclaimed by the prophets (Daniel 12:2) in the Old Testament and by Jesus
(John 5:28–29) and Paul (1 Corinthians 15:42–44) in the New Testament. According
to the apostles and prophets, the resurrection will be physical or bodily — the
body raised imperishable; personal — the same person with the same identity is
restored and glorified; and corporate — in that all humanity will be summoned
before Christ as the Judge of the whole earth. According to the Creed, death is
not the end of all being; it is the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Corinthians
15:26). The Creed concludes with the hope of “the life of the world to come.”
This is not an ethereal or disembodied existence but a renewed creation—a new
heavens and new earth wherein righteousness dwells (2 Peter 3:13; Revelation
21:1). It will shine with the radiance of God (Revelation 21:23), be free from
death and sorrow (Revelation 21:4), and be filled with the glory of the Lamb
(Revelation 22:3–4). It will be a place of rest, joy, and perfect peace—the
full realisation of ‘shalom’ (Hebrews 4:9).
Conclusion
The
Creed ends not with uncertainty, but with a loud “Amen!” – or “So let it be”. It
is not merely an ancient formula from our patristic past but is a living and
enduring confession that unites believers across all cultures, societies,
centuries, and traditions. It certainly reflects the deep doctrinal awareness
of the Church Fathers and the theological struggles of the early church in contending
for the doctrine of the Trinity and the hypostatic union of the divine and
human natures in the person of Christ. It offers a robust understanding of Christology
and what it means to confess belief in a Triune God. Whether recited in a
cathedral, a small gathering, or silently in prayer, the Creed speaks with a
living voice and draws Christians back to the essential truths of the Gospel
that transcend denominational barriers. To confess the Creed is to stand in continuity
with generation upon generation of Christian believers engaging in a shared
language of faith, grounding worship in robust theology, shaping ecclesiastical
identity, and guarding the essential truths of the Gospel against error and
heresy. The heart of the faith remains anchored in the same creedal confession:
belief in God the Father Almighty, and in the Son Jesus Christ our Lord, and in
the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life – one God in three persons,
forever. To whom be glory, honour, and dominion. World without end. Amen.
References
& Recommended Reading
N.B. The theological works
recommending in the following bibliography represent the best available
literature to the Christian believer within the Protestant and Reformed Tradition.
If you want to delve deeper into the theology of the Christian faith, I recommend
you familiarize yourself with these particular works listed below – especially those
highlighted with an asterisk.
Allison, Greg R., Historical
Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine (Zondervan, 2011).
Barrett, Matthrew (ed.), On
Classical Trinitarianism: Retrieving the Nicene Doctrine of the Triune God
(IVP Academic, 2024).*
Barth, Karl, Dogmatics in
Outline (SCM Press, 2001).
Barth, Karl, Evangelical
Theology: An Introduction (Eerdmans, 1979).
Barth, Karl, The Epistle to
the Romans (OUP, 1968).
Bavinck, Herman, Reformed
Dogmatics (4 vols) (Baker Academic, 2003–08).*
Berkhof,
Louis, Systematic Theology (Eerdmans, 1996).*
Bird, Michael F., Evangelical
Theology: A Biblical and Systematic Introduction (Zondervan Academic,
2020).
Boettner, Loraine, The Reformed
Doctrine of Predestination (Presbyterian and Reformed, 1932).
Bray, Gerald, God is Love: A
Biblical and Systematic Theology (Crossway, 2012).
Calvin, John, The Institutes
of the Christian Religion (Hendrickson, 2008).*
Charles Hodge, Systematic
Theology (Hendrickson, 1999).
Charnock, Stephen, The
Existence and Attributes of God (2 vols) (Crossway, 2022).
Dabney, R. L. Systematic
Theology (Banner of Truth, 1985).
Daniel Curt, The History and
Theology of Calvinism (Evangelical Press, 2020).
Dixhoorn, Chad Van (ed.), Creeds,
Confessions, & Catechisms: A Reader’s Edition (Crossway, 2022).*
Ericson, Millard J., Christian
Theology (Baker Academic, 2013).
Frame, John, Systematic
Theology: An Introduction to Christian Belief (Presbyterian and Reformed,
2013).
Genderen, J. Van, and Velema, W.
H., Concise Reformed Dogmatics (Presbyterian and Reformed, 2008).
Grudem, Wayne, Systematic Theology:
An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (IVP, 2020).
Heppe, Heinrich, Reformed
Dogmatics (Wakeman Classics, 2000).
Hoeksema, Herman, Reformed
Dogmatics (2 vols) (Reformed Free Publishing Association, 2004–05).
Horton, Michael, The Christian
Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Zondervan, 2011).*
Karkkainen, Veli-Matti, Christian
Theology in the Pluralistic World: A Global Introduction (Eerdmans, 2019).
Letham, Robert, Systematic
Theology (Crossway, 2019).*
Letham,
Robert, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship
(Presbyterian and Reformed, 2004).
Lloyd-Jones,
Martyn, Studies in the Sermon on the Mount (Eerdmans, 1959 – 60).
Machen,
J. Gresham, Christianity and Liberalism (Macmillan, 1923).
Macleod,
Donald, A Faith to Live By (Christian Focus, 1998).
McGrath, Alister E., and Matthew
Thomas, Christian Theology: An Introduction (Wiley Blackwell, 2025).*
Milne, Bruce, Know the Truth:
A Handbook of Christian Belief (IVP, 2009).
Muller, Richard A., Post-Reformation
Reformed Dogmatics (4 vols) (Baker Academic, 2003–04).
Murray, Iain, The Puritan Hope: A Study of Revival and the Interpretation of Prophecy (Banner of Truth, 1975).
Murray, John, Collected
Writings (Banner of Truth, 1982).
Murray,
John, Redemption Accomplished and Applied (Eerdmans, 1955).
Needham,
Nick, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power (5 vols) (Christian Focus, 1997–2021).
Packer,
J. I., Fundamentalism and the Word of God (Eerdmans, 1958).
Packer,
J. I., Knowing God (Hodder and Stoughton, 1973).
Pelikan, Jaroslav, The
Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (5 vols) (University
of Chicago Press, 1971–89).
Pink,
A. W., The Sovereignty of God (Baker Book House, 1930).
Ryle,
J. C., Holiness (James Clarke & Co., 1879).
Shedd, William G. T., Dogmatic
Theology (Presbyterian and Reformed, 2003).
Stott,
John, The Cross of Christ (IVP, 1986)
Thiselton, Anthony C., Systematic
Theology (SPCK, 2015).
Turretin, Francis, Institutes
of Elenctic Theology (Presbyterian and Reformed, 1992–97)
Van
Til, Cornelius, An Introduction to Systematic Theology (Presbyterian and
Reformed, 1997).
Vos, Geerhardus, Reformed
Dogmatics: A System of Christian Theology (Lexham Press, 2012–16).
Watson, Thomas, A Body of
Divinity (Banner of Truth, 1958).*
Webster, John, Kathryn Tanner,
Iain Torrance (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Systematic Theology (OUP,
2007).
Whilhemus A Brakel, The
Christian’s Reasonable Service (4 vols) (Reformation Heritage Books, 1992–95).*
Young, Edward J., Thy Word is
Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration (Banner of
Truth, 1963).